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What Is Research and Development (R&D)? 什么是研发（R&D）？

Investopedia / Ellen Lindner

Research and Development

An ongoing effort to develop or improve products and services, often undertaken by teams of highly skilled scientists and engineers.

开发或改进产品和服务的持续努力，通常由高技能科学家和工程师团队承担。

What Is Research and Development (R&D)? 什么是研发（R&D）？

Research and development (R&D) is the series of activities that companies undertake to innovate. R&D is often the first stage in the development process that results in market research product development, and product testing.
研究与开发（R&D）是公司为创新而进行的一系列活动。研发通常是开发过程中的第一阶段，包括市场研究、产品开发和产品测试。

Key Takeaways 关键要点

• Research and development represents the activities companies undertake to innovate and introduce new products and services or to improve their existing offerings.
  研究与开发是公司为创新和推出新产品和服务或改进现有产品而开展的活动。
• R&D allows a company to stay ahead of its competition by catering to new wants or needs in the market.
  研发使公司能够通过迎合市场上的新需求或需求来保持竞争优势。
• Companies in different sectors and industries conduct R&D—pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, and technology companies generally spend the most.
  不同部门和行业的公司进行研发——制药、半导体和科技公司通常花费最多。
• R&D is often a broad approach to exploratory advancement, while applied research is more geared towards researching a more narrow scope.
  研发通常是一种广泛的探索性推进方法，而应用研究则更倾向于研究更狭窄的范围。
• The accounting for treatment for R&D costs can materially impact a company’s income statement and balance sheet.
  研发成本的处理会计处理会对公司的损益表和资产负债表产生重大影响。

Understanding Research and Development (R&D) 了解研究与开发 （R&D）

The concept of research and development is widely linked to innovation both in the corporate and government sectors. R&D allows a company to stay ahead of its competition. Without an R&D program, a company may not survive on its own and may have to rely on other ways to innovate such as engaging in mergers and acquisitions (M&A) or partnerships. Through R&D, companies can design new products and improve their existing offerings.
研究与开发的概念与企业和政府部门的创新有着广泛的联系。研发使公司能够在竞争中保持领先地位。如果没有研发计划，公司可能无法独立生存，可能不得不依靠其他方式进行创新，例如进行并购 （M&A） 或合作伙伴关系。通过研发，公司可以设计新产品并改进现有产品。

R&D is distinct from most operational activities performed by a corporation. The research and/or development is typically not performed with the expectation of immediate profit. Instead, it is expected to contribute to the long-term profitability of a company. R&D may often allow companies to secure intellectual property, including patents, copyrights, and trademarks as discoveries are made and products created.
研发与公司进行的大多数运营活动不同。研究和/或开发通常不是为了立即获得利润。相反，它有望为公司的长期盈利能力做出贡献。研发通常可以让公司获得知识产权，包括专利、版权和商标，因为发现和产品被创造出来。

Companies that set up and employ departments dedicated entirely to R&D commit substantial capital to the effort. They must estimate the risk-adjusted return on their R&D expenditures, which inevitably involves risk of capital. That’s because there is no immediate payoff, and the return on investment (ROI) is uncertain. As more money is invested in R&D, the level of capital risk increases. Other companies may choose to outsource their R&D for a variety of reasons including size and cost.
建立和雇用完全致力于研发的部门的公司会为此投入大量资金。他们必须估计其研发支出的风险调整后回报，这不可避免地涉及资本风险。这是因为没有立竿见影的回报，投资回报率（ROI）是不确定的。随着越来越多的资金投入到研发中，资本风险水平也会增加。其他公司可能出于各种原因选择外包研发，包括规模和成本。

Companies across all sectors and industries undergo R&D activities. Corporations experience growth through these improvements and the development of new goods and services. Pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, and software/technology companies tend to spend the most on R&D. In Europe, R&D is known as research and technical or technological development.
所有部门和行业的公司都在进行研发活动。企业通过这些改进以及新商品和服务的开发来体验增长。制药、半导体和软件/技术公司往往在研发上花费最多。在欧洲，R&D被称为研究和技术或技术开发。

Many small and mid-sized businesses may choose to outsource their R&D efforts because they don’t have the right staff in-house to meet their needs.
许多中小型企业可能会选择外包他们的研发工作，因为他们内部没有合适的员工来满足他们的需求。

Types of Research and Development (R&D) 研究与开发（R&D）类型

There are several different types of R&D that exist in the corporate world and within government. The type used depends entirely on the entity undertaking it and the results can differ.
企业界和政府内部存在几种不同类型的研发。使用的类型完全取决于承担它的实体，结果可能会有所不同。

Basic Research 基础研究

There are business incubators and accelerators, where corporations invest in startups and provide funding assistance and guidance to entrepreneurs in the hope that innovations will result that they can use to their benefit.
有企业孵化器和加速器，公司投资初创企业，为企业家提供资金援助和指导，希望创新能够产生，他们可以利用这些创新来造福自己。

M&As and partnerships are also forms of R&D as companies join forces to take advantage of other companies’ institutional knowledge and talent.
并购和伙伴关系也是研发的形式，因为公司联手利用其他公司的机构知识和人才。

Applied Research 应用研究

One R&D model is a department staffed primarily by engineers who develop new products—a task that typically involves extensive research. There is no specific goal or application in mind with this model. Instead, the research is done for the sake of research.
一种研发模式是一个主要由开发新产品的工程师组成的部门，这项任务通常涉及广泛的研究。此模型没有特定的目标或应用。相反，研究是为了研究而进行的。

Development Research 发展研究

This model involves a department composed of industrial scientists or researchers, all of who are tasked with applied research in technical, scientific, or industrial fields. This model facilitates the development of future products or the improvement of current products and/or operating procedures.

该模型涉及一个由工业科学家或研究人员组成的部门，他们都负责技术、科学或工业领域的应用研究。该模型有助于未来产品的开发或当前产品和/或操作程序的改进。

The largest companies may also be the ones that drive the most R&D spend. For example, Amazon has reported $1.147 billion of research and development value on its 2023 annual report.1
最大的公司也可能是推动研发支出最多的公司。例如，亚马逊在其 2023 年年报中报告了 11.47 亿美元的研发价值。 1

Advantages and Disadvantages of R&D 研发的优缺点

Advantages 优势

There are several key benefits to research and development. It facilitates innovation, allowing companies to improve existing products and services or by letting them develop new ones to bring to the market.
研究和开发有几个关键的好处。它促进创新，允许公司改进现有产品和服务，或者让他们开发新的产品和服务以推向市场。

Because R&D also is a key component of innovation, it requires a greater degree of skill from employees who take part. This allows companies to expand their talent pool, which often comes with special skill sets.
由于研发也是创新的关键组成部分，因此它需要参与的员工具有更高程度的技能。这使公司能够扩大其人才库，而人才库通常具有特殊的技能组合。

The advantages go beyond corporations. Consumers stand to benefit from R&D because it gives them better, high-quality products and services as well as a wider range of options. Corporations can, therefore, rely on consumers to remain loyal to their brands. It also helps drive productivity and economic growth.

优势不仅限于公司。消费者将从研发中受益，因为它为他们提供了更好、更高质量的产品和服务以及更广泛的选择。因此，企业可以依靠消费者保持对其品牌的忠诚。它还有助于推动生产力和经济增长。

Disadvantages 弊

One of the major drawbacks to R&D is the cost. First, there is the financial expense as it requires a significant investment of cash upfront. This can include setting up a separate R&D department, hiring talent, and product and service testing, among others.
研发的主要缺点之一是成本。首先是财务费用，因为它需要大量的前期现金投资。这可能包括设立一个单独的研发部门、招聘人才以及产品和服务测试等。

Innovation doesn’t happen overnight so there is also a time factor to consider. This means that it takes a lot of time to bring products and services to market from conception to production to delivery.
创新不是一蹴而就的，因此还需要考虑时间因素。这意味着将产品和服务从概念到生产再到交付需要花费大量时间。

Because it does take time to go from concept to product, companies stand the risk of being at the mercy of changing market trends. So what they thought may be a great seller at one time may reach the market too late and not fly off the shelves once it’s ready.
因为从概念到产品需要时间，公司面临着受市场趋势变化影响的风险。所以，他们原以为可能会成为畅销品的产品在准备上市时可能已经太晚了，一旦上市可能就不会畅销了。

Pros 赞成者

• Facilitates innovation
  促进创新

• Improved or new products and services
  改进或新产品和服务

• Expands knowledge and talent pool
  扩大知识和人才库

• Increased consumer choice and brand loyalty
  增加消费者选择和品牌忠诚度

• Economic driver
  经济驱动力

Cons 反对者

• Financial investment
  金融投资

• Takes time
  需要时间

• Shifting market trends
  不断变化的市场趋势

R&D Accounting 研发成本

R&D may be beneficial to a company’s bottom line, but it is considered an expense. After all, companies spend substantial amounts on research and trying to develop new products and services. As such, these expenses are often reported for accounting purposes on the income statement and do not carry long-term value.
研发可能对公司的底线有益，但它被认为是一种费用。毕竟，公司在研究和尝试开发新产品和服务方面花费了大量资金。因此，这些费用通常出于会计目的在损益表上报告，不具有长期价值。

There are certain situations where R&D costs are capitalized and reported on the balance sheet. Some examples include but are not limited to:
在某些情况下，研发成本被资本化并在资产负债表上报告。一些示例包括但不限于：

• Materials, fixed assets, or other assets have alternative future uses with an estimable value and useful life.
  材料、固定资产或其他资产具有可估计的价值和使用寿命的替代未来用途。
• Software that can be converted or applied elsewhere in the company to have a useful life beyond a specific single R&D project.
  可以在公司其他地方进行转换或应用的软件，使其在特定的单个研发项目之外具有使用寿命。
• Indirect costs or overhead expenses allocated between projects.
  在项目之间分配的间接成本或间接费用。
• R&D purchased from a third party that is accompanied by intangible value. That intangible asset may be recorded as a separate balance sheet asset.
  从第三方购买的研发产品，并伴有无形价值。该无形资产可以作为单独的资产负债表资产入账。

R&D Considerations 研发注意事项

Before taking on the task of research and development, it’s important for companies and governments to consider some of the key factors associated with it. Some of the most notable considerations are:
在承担研发任务之前，公司和政府必须考虑与之相关的一些关键因素。一些最值得注意的考虑因素是：

• Objectives and Outcome: One of the most important factors to consider is the intended goals of the R&D project. Is it to innovate and fill a need for certain products that aren’t being sold? Or is it to make improvements on existing ones? Whatever the reason, it’s always important to note that there should be some flexibility as things can change over time.
  目标和结果：要考虑的最重要因素之一是研发项目的预期目标。是为了创新和满足对某些未售出产品的需求吗？还是要对现有产品进行改进？不管是什么原因，重要的是要注意应该有一些灵活性，因为事情会随着时间的推移而变化。
• Timing: R&D requires a lot of time. This involves reviewing the market to see where there may be a lack of certain products and services or finding ways to improve on those that are already on the shelves.
  时机：研发需要大量时间。这包括审查市场，看看哪里可能缺乏某些产品和服务，或者找到改进那些已经上架的产品和服务的方法。
• Cost: R&D costs a great deal of money, especially when it comes to the upfront costs. And there may be higher costs associated with the conception and production of new products rather than updating existing ones.
  成本：研发需要花费大量资金，尤其是在前期成本方面。与更新现有产品相比，新产品的构思和生产可能会带来更高的成本。
• Risks: As with any venture, R&D does come with risks. R&D doesn’t come with any guarantees, no matter the time and money that goes into it. This means that companies and governments may sacrifice their ROI if the end product isn’t successful.
  风险：与任何企业一样，研发确实存在风险。研发没有任何保证，无论投入多少时间和金钱。这意味着，如果最终产品不成功，公司和政府可能会牺牲他们的投资回报率。

Research and Development vs. Applied Research 研发与应用研究

Basic research is aimed at a fuller, more complete understanding of the fundamental aspects of a concept or phenomenon. This understanding is generally the first step in R&D. These activities provide a basis of information without directed applications toward products, policies, or operational processes.
基础研究旨在更全面、更完整地理解概念或现象的基本方面。这种理解通常是研发的第一步。这些活动提供了信息基础，而无需直接应用于产品、策略或操作流程。

Applied research entails the activities used to gain knowledge with a specific goal in mind. The activities may be to determine and develop new products, policies, or operational processes. While basic research is time-consuming, applied research is painstaking and more costly because of its detailed and complex nature.

应用研究需要用于获取知识的活动，并牢记特定目标。这些活动可能是确定和开发新产品、政策或运营流程。虽然基础研究很耗时，但应用研究因其详细和复杂的性质而艰苦且成本更高。

R&D Tax Credits 研发税收抵免

The IRS offers a R&D tax credit to encourage innovation and significantly reduction their tax liability. The credit calls for specific types of spend such as product development, process improvement, and software creation.
美国国税局提供研发税收抵免，以鼓励创新并显着减少他们的纳税义务。该抵免要求特定类型的支出，例如产品开发、流程改进和软件创建。

Enacted under Section 41 of the Internal Revenue Code, this credit encourages innovation by providing a dollar-for-dollar reduction in tax obligations. The eligibility criteria, expanded by the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes (PATH) Act of 2015, now encompass a broader spectrum of businesses. The credit tens to benefit small-to-midsize enterprises.
根据《国内税收法》第 41 条颁布，该抵免通过减少一美元对一美元的纳税义务来鼓励创新。2015年《保护美国人免受加税（PATH）法案》扩大了资格标准，现在涵盖了更广泛的企业。信贷数十项惠及中小企业。

To claim R&D tax credits, businesses must document their qualifying expenses and complete IRS Form 6765 (Credit for Increasing Research Activities). The credit, typically ranging from 6% to 8% of annual qualifying expenses, offers businesses a direct offset against federal income tax liabilities. Additionally, businesses can claim up to $250,000 per year against their payroll taxes.
要申请研发税收抵免，企业必须记录其符合条件的费用并填写 IRS 表格 6765（增加研究活动的抵免）。该抵免额通常为年度合格费用的 6% 至 8%，为企业提供联邦所得税负债的直接抵消。此外，企业每年最多可以申请 250,000 美元的工资税。

Example of Research and Development (R&D) 研究与开发（R&D）实例

One of the more innovative companies of this millennium is Apple Inc. As part of its annual reporting, it has the following to say about its research and development spend:
本世纪最具创新性的公司之一是苹果公司。作为其年度报告的一部分，它对其研发支出有如下看法：

In 2023, Apple reported having spent $29.915 billion. This is 8% of their annual total net sales. Note that Apple’s R&D spend was reported to be higher than the company’s selling, general and administrative costs (of $24.932 billion).
2023 年，苹果报告称花费了 299.15 亿美元。这是他们年度总净销售额的8%。请注意，据报道，苹果的研发支出高于该公司的销售、一般和管理成本（249.32 亿美元）。

Note that the company doesn’t go into length about what exactly the R&D spend is for. According to the notes, the company’s year-over-year growth was “driven primarily by increases in headcount-related expenses”. However, this does not explain the underlying basis carried from prior years (i.e. materials, patents, etc.).
请注意，该公司没有详细说明研发支出的确切用途。根据说明，该公司的同比增长“主要是由员工相关费用的增加推动的”。然而，这并不能解释前几年的基本基础（即材料、专利等）。

What Is Research and Development? 什么是研发？

Research and development refers to the systematic process of investigating, experimenting, and innovating to create new products, processes, or technologies. It encompasses activities such as scientific research, technological development, and experimentation conducted to achieve specific objectives to bring new items to market.
研究与开发是指为创造新产品、工艺或技术而进行调查、实验和创新的系统过程。它包括为实现将新产品推向市场的特定目标而进行的科学研究、技术开发和实验等活动。

What Types of Activities Can Be Found in Research and Development? 在研发中可以找到哪些类型的活动？

Research and development activities focus on the innovation of new products or services in a company. Among the primary purposes of R&D activities is for a company to remain competitive as it produces products that advance and elevate its current product line. Since R&D typically operates on a longer-term horizon, its activities are not anticipated to generate immediate returns. However, in time, R&D projects may lead to patents, trademarks, or breakthrough discoveries with lasting benefits to the company.
研发活动的重点是公司新产品或服务的创新。研发活动的主要目的之一是让公司在生产能够推进和提升其现有产品线的产品时保持竞争力。由于研发通常以长期为单位运作，因此预计其活动不会立即产生回报。然而，随着时间的推移，研发项目可能会带来专利、商标或突破性发现，并为公司带来持久的利益。

Why Is Research and Development Important? 为什么研发很重要？

Given the rapid rate of technological advancement, R&D is important for companies to stay competitive. Specifically, R&D allows companies to create products that are difficult for their competitors to replicate. Meanwhile, R&D efforts can lead to improved productivity that helps increase margins, further creating an edge in outpacing competitors. From a broader perspective, R&D can allow a company to stay ahead of the curve, anticipating customer demands or trends.
鉴于技术进步的快速发展，研发对于公司保持竞争力非常重要。具体来说，研发允许公司创造竞争对手难以复制的产品。同时，研发工作可以提高生产力，有助于提高利润率，进一步创造超越竞争对手的优势。从更广泛的角度来看，研发可以使公司保持领先地位，预测客户需求或趋势。

The Bottom Line 底线

There are many things companies can do in order to advance in their industries and the overall market. Research and development is just one way they can set themselves apart from their competition. It opens up the potential for innovation and increasing sales. However, it does come with some drawbacks—the most obvious being the financial cost and the time it takes to innovate.
为了在行业和整体市场中取得进步，公司可以做很多事情。研发只是他们从竞争中脱颖而出的一种方式。它开辟了创新和增加销售额的潜力。然而，它确实有一些缺点——最明显的是财务成本和创新所需的时间。

via:

• What Is Research and Development (R&D)?

  - By WILL KENTON Updated June 30,2024

  Reviewed by CAITLIN CLARKE

  Fact checked by SUZANNE KVILHAUG

  https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/randd.asp

篇外一： PERT 与 CPM：项目经理需要掌握的 8 个关键区别

PERT Vs CPM: 8 Key Differences For Project Managers To Grasp

QUICK SUMMARY

Want to know when PERT and CPM are best used on your projects? Learn about the pros and cons of each, the main differences between these techniques, and how to determine which path fits your project.
想知道何时 PERT 和 CPM 最适合您的项目吗？了解每种技术的优缺点、这些技术之间的主要区别，以及如何确定哪种路径适合您的项目。

The difference between PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) and CPM (Critical Path Method) is that PERT is used when projects have more flexible timelines or more uncertainty, and CPM is used when there is a fixed timeline and you have exact details about each task that needs to be completed.
PERT（项目评估和审查技术）和 CPM（关键路径方法）之间的区别在于，当项目具有更灵活的时间表或更多的不确定性时，使用 PERT，而当有固定的时间表并且您有关于需要完成的每项任务的确切详细信息时，使用 CPM。

Both are supported by most common project management software that you’ll encounter.
您将遇到的最常见的项目管理软件都支持这两种软件。

What Is PERT? 什么是 PERT？

PERT (program evaluation and review technique, or sometimes project evaluation and review technique) is a technique for calculating the timeline of a project. PERT charts, which represent the timeline as nodes and lines between the nodes, offer a holistic view of the project by:
PERT（项目评估和审查技术，有时也称为项目评估和审查技术）是一种计算项目时间表的技术。PERT 图表将时间线表示为节点和节点之间的线条，通过以下方式提供项目的整体视图：

• Breaking down the project into specific milestones, represented as the nodes
  将项目分解为特定的里程碑，表示为节点
• Analyzing the time needed for each task, which are represented by the lines
  分析每个任务所需的时间，这些任务由线表示
• Understanding the interdependencies between them
  了解它们之间的相互依赖关系

Using your PERT chart, you can calculate three estimates for how long the project will take.
使用 PERT 控制图，您可以计算出项目所需时间的三个估计值。

• An optimistic estimate, i.e. the fastest possible timeline
  一个乐观的估计，即尽可能快的时间表
• A pessimistic estimate, i.e. the longest possible timeline
  悲观的估计，即最长的可能时间表
• The most likely estimate, i.e. the most reasonable estimate
  最可能的估计，即最合理的估计

Here’s what a typical PERT chart might look like.

Pros of PERT PERT的优点

• Flexibility is key: Unlike some rigid methods, PERT is adaptable. You can adjust timelines as you gain better insights or face unexpected hiccups.
  灵活性是关键：与一些僵化的方法不同，PERT具有适应性。您可以调整时间线，以获得更好的见解或面临意想不到的打嗝。
• Risk awareness: By evaluating multiple timelines (an optimistic time, a pessimistic time, and the most likely time), PERT prepares you for the best and worst scenarios. It’s the ideal method when navigating uncharted territories or if uncertainty is high.
  风险意识：通过评估多个时间线（乐观时间、悲观时间和最有可能的时间），PERT 为您准备了最佳和最坏的情况。在未知领域航行或不确定性很高时，这是理想的方法。
• Clearer project visualization: With its unique network diagram, PERT lays out all tasks and their inter-relationships in a clear visual format. Perfect for those moments when you must explain the intricacies to stakeholders or team members.
  更清晰的项目可视化：凭借其独特的网络图，PERT以清晰的可视化格式布置了所有任务及其相互关系。非常适合您必须向利益相关者或团队成员解释错综复杂的时刻。
• Focus on key tasks: PERT ensures you prioritize the tasks that matter the most. It’s like having a spotlight on the show-stoppers, so you never miss a beat. Non-critical activities are ranked with lower priority but are still completed based on their importance.
  专注于关键任务：PERT 确保您优先考虑最重要的任务。这就像聚光灯聚焦在表演的焦点上，所以你永远不会错过任何一个节拍。非关键活动的优先级较低，但仍根据其重要性完成。

Cons of PERT PERT的缺点

• Time-intensive: Crafting a PERT diagram can sometimes feel like assembling a jigsaw puzzle. It’s detailed and requires substantial time investment, especially for complex projects.
  时间密集型：制作 PERT 图有时感觉就像组装拼图游戏。它很详细，需要投入大量时间，尤其是对于复杂的项目。
• Based on estimates: Remember the multiple timelines we mentioned? While they offer a range of possibilities, they’re still based on estimates. This can occasionally lead to inaccuracies in the projected timeline of the project duration.
  基于估计：还记得我们提到的多个时间表吗？虽然它们提供了一系列可能性，但它们仍然基于估计。这有时会导致项目工期的预计时间表不准确。
• Complexity can be overwhelming: PERT might be overkill for smaller projects or those with a clear path.
  复杂性可能令人不知所措：对于较小的项目或路径明确的项目来说，PERT 可能有点矫枉过正。
• Frequent re-evaluations needed: The dynamic nature of PERT means that as project conditions change, you’ll often need to revisit and adjust your charts. It demands vigilance and continuous attention.
  需要频繁的重新评估：PERT 的动态特性意味着随着项目条件的变化，您经常需要重新访问和调整图表。它需要警惕和持续关注。

What Is CPM? 什么是 CPM？

CPM, or critical path method, is the sequence of tasks determining how fast you can reach the project’s completion time. This is the longest path through a project—any delay in these tasks and your project end date gets pushed.
CPM，即关键路径方法，是确定您以多快的速度到达项目完成时间的任务序列。这是完成项目的最长路径 - 这些任务的任何延迟和项目结束日期都会被推迟。

Both critical and non-critical tasks are assigned a fixed start, end, and amount of time. It’s about understanding the domino effect: if one task in the critical path gets delayed, what’s the ripple effect on the subsequent ones?
关键任务和非关键任务都分配了固定的开始、结束和时间量。这是关于理解多米诺骨牌效应：如果关键路径中的一个任务被延迟，那么对后续任务的连锁反应是什么？

But CPM is about more than just identifying this all-important path. It’s about optimizing it. By constantly evaluating the progress and adjusting the flow of project activities, CPM ensures that the project stays on track, even if unforeseen challenges pop up.
但 CPM 不仅仅是确定这条至关重要的路径。这是关于优化它。通过不断评估进度和调整项目活动流程，CPM 确保项目保持在正轨上，即使出现不可预见的挑战。

So, when you’re armed with CPM, you’re not just moving from point A to B. You’re doing it with a well-thought-out plan, ensuring each step propels you toward the end goal in the quickest, most efficient manner possible.
因此，当您拥有 CPM 时，您不仅仅是从 A 点移动到 B 点。您正在制定一个经过深思熟虑的计划，确保每一步都能以最快、最有效的方式推动您朝着最终目标迈进。

This diagram illustrates the critical path, i.e. the longest path from task A to task P.

You might also consider using the critical chain method as an alternative.
您也可以考虑使用关键链方法作为替代方法。

Pros of CPM CPM的优点

• Precision matters: CPM gives you a precise timeline. There’s clarity in what needs to be done and when. It’s your project’s metronome, keeping everything in rhythm and pace, from the minimum time and activity duration to the sequence of activities and overall project schedule.
  精确度很重要：CPM 为您提供精确的时间表。明确需要做什么以及何时做。它是您项目的节拍器，从最短时间和活动持续时间到活动顺序和整体项目进度，让一切都保持节奏和节奏。
• Resource optimization: By laying out a clear path, CPM allows managers to allocate resources where they’re most needed. No more overstretching or understaffing—every resource is just right.
  资源优化：通过制定清晰的路径，CPM 允许经理将资源分配到最需要的地方。不再有过度紧张或人手不足的情况，每一种资源都恰到好处。
• Cost-effective: Time is money, as they say. By optimizing task sequences, CPM can help reduce overhead and keep projects within budget.
  成本效益：正如他们所说，时间就是金钱。通过优化任务序列，CPM 可以帮助减少开销并将项目保持在预算范围内。

Cons of CPM CPM的缺点

• Less flexibility: While PERT adapts on the go, CPM is more rigid. This means sudden changes can be trickier to manage.
  灵活性较低：虽然 PERT 可以随时随地进行调整，但 CPM 更加严格。这意味着突然的变化可能更难管理。
• Not ideal for uncertain projects: For projects where task durations are uncertain or if there’s a lot of unpredictability, CPM may not be the best fit.
  对于不确定的项目来说并不理想：对于任务持续时间不确定或存在大量不可预测性的项目，CPM 可能不是最合适的。
• Demands detailed data: The precision of CPM comes at a cost. It requires exhaustive, detailed data about each task.
  需要详细的数据：CPM 的精确度是有代价的。它需要有关每个任务的详尽、详细的数据。
• Regular monitoring needed: While this is true for most methods, CPM’s emphasis on the critical path means any slip-up can affect the entire project timeline. Hence, meticulous monitoring becomes essential.
  需要定期监控：虽然大多数方法都是如此，但 CPM 对关键路径的强调意味着任何失误都可能影响整个项目时间表。因此，细致的监测变得至关重要。

8 Key Differences Between PERT Vs CPM PERT 与 CPM 之间的 8 个主要区别

While these project management techniques may seem similar at first glance, PERT and CPM have distinct characteristics. Let’s break down these differences, so you can confidently choose the right approach for your project.
虽然这些项目管理技术乍一看似乎很相似，但 PERT 和 CPM 具有不同的特征。让我们分解这些差异，以便您可以自信地为您的项目选择正确的方法。

• Event Oriented vs Activity Oriented
  面向事件与面向活动
• Unpredictable Activities vs Predictable Activities
  不可预测的活动与可预测的活动
• Controlling Time vs Time-Cost Trade-Off
  控制时间与时间成本权衡
• One-Off Projects vs Repetitive Projects
  一次性项目与重复性项目
• Probability Model vs Deterministic Model
  概率模型与确定性模型
• Milestones as Chart Nodes vs Tasks as Chart Nodes
  作为图表节点的里程碑与作为图表节点的任务
• No Distinction For Critical Activities vs Distinguishing Critical Activities
  关键活动与区分关键活动没有区别
• No Resource Crashing vs Resource Crashing
  没有资源崩溃与资源崩溃

1. Event Oriented vs Activity Oriented 1. 以事件为导向与以活动为导向

At the heart of PERT is the concept of events. Think of these events as checkpoints in a marathon—significant points where you assess your progress. It’s about reaching these checkpoints and ensuring everything’s on track. Events in PERT don’t consume time or resources—they merely mark a point of achievement.
PERT的核心是事件的概念。把这些事件想象成马拉松比赛中的检查点，也就是你评估自己进步的重要点。这是关于到达这些检查站并确保一切正常。PERT 中的事件不会消耗时间或资源，它们只是标记一个成就点。

CPM is all about the journey between these checkpoints. The activities, or tasks, are the main focus. These are the tangible steps that consume time and resources. In CPM, these activities and their durations get mapped out, helping project managers understand the project flow.
CPM 是关于这些检查点之间的旅程。活动或任务是主要焦点。这些是消耗时间和资源的有形步骤。在 CPM 中，这些活动及其持续时间被绘制出来，帮助项目经理了解项目流程。

2. Unpredictable Activities vs Predictable Activities 2. 不可预测的活动与可预测的活动

PERT’s design caters to the unknown. When working on groundbreaking projects without precedent, estimations are naturally filled with uncertainty. PERT accepts this unpredictability, offering multiple time scenarios (optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic) for each activity to help managers prepare for various outcomes.
PERT的设计迎合了未知。在从事没有先例的开创性项目时，估算自然充满了不确定性。PERT 接受这种不可预测性，为每项活动提供多种时间情景（乐观、最有可能和悲观），以帮助管理者为各种结果做好准备。

CPM, meanwhile, requires a level of predictability. It demands accurate data about each activity’s duration. Activities have a fixed start and end time, giving managers a clear view of when each task should begin and conclude, making it easier to monitor and control all activities of the project. This statistical technique helps to gauge high precision time estimations and where dependencies can alter the algorithm for this method.
同时，CPM 需要一定程度的可预测性。它需要有关每项活动持续时间的准确数据。活动具有固定的开始和结束时间，使管理人员可以清楚地了解每个任务的开始和结束时间，从而更轻松地监视和控制项目的所有活动。这种统计技术有助于衡量高精度的时间估计，以及依赖关系可以改变此方法的算法的位置。

3. Controlling Time vs Time-Cost Trade-Off 3. 控制时间与时间成本权衡

PERT is all about optimizing time. Given the inherent uncertainties in task durations, managers using PERT are often trying to ensure that projects complete within a reasonable time estimate, even if the exact duration is fluid.
PERT是关于优化时间的。鉴于任务持续时间固有的不确定性，使用 PERT 的管理人员通常试图确保项目在合理的时间估计内完成，即使确切的持续时间是可变的。

CPM introduces another layer: cost. With its precise nature, CPM lets managers play with the trade-off between time and cost of the project. For example, can you afford to extend a deadline if it means reduced costs? Or would you rather speed things up, even if it means a budget increase? CPM lays this out clearly.
CPM 引入了另一层：成本。凭借其精确的性质，CPM 允许管理人员在项目的时间和成本之间进行权衡。例如，如果延长最后期限意味着降低成本，您能负担得起吗？或者你宁愿加快速度，即使这意味着预算增加？CPM 清楚地说明了这一点。

4. One-Off Projects vs Repetitive Projects 4. 一次性项目与重复性项目

The PERT technique shines when every project is a new frontier. Tasks and their sequences might not have a past reference, making every move feel pioneering. It’s perfect for unique projects that might not be repeated in the future.
当每个项目都是一个新的领域时，PERT技术就会大放异彩。任务及其顺序可能没有过去的参考，使每个动作都感觉具有开创性。它非常适合将来可能不会重复的独特项目。

CPM, however, is ideal for repetitive projects where tasks and their sequences are well-known and can be predicted based on past experience. With CPM, managers can refine and perfect their approach with every iteration.
然而，CPM 非常适合重复性项目，在这些项目中，任务及其顺序是众所周知的，并且可以根据过去的经验进行预测。借助 CPM，管理人员可以在每次迭代中改进和完善他们的方法。

5. Probability Model vs Deterministic Model 5. 概率模型与确定性模型

PERT acknowledges uncertainty and operates in a probabilistic realm. It doesn’t claim to predict the future but offers a range of possibilities to equip managers for a range of outcomes across all activities of a project.
PERT承认不确定性，并在概率领域中运作。它并不声称可以预测未来，而是提供了一系列可能性，使管理人员能够为项目所有活动的一系列结果做好准备。

CPM doesn’t like leaving things to chance. It’s deterministic, thriving on solid data. Each task’s duration is set in stone, offering a clear path the project should ideally follow without room for deviation.
CPM 不喜欢让事情碰运气。它是确定性的，在可靠的数据上蓬勃发展。每个任务的持续时间都是一成不变的，为项目提供了一条清晰的路径，理想情况下应该遵循，没有偏差的余地。

6. Milestones as Chart Nodes vs Tasks as Chart Nodes 6. 作为图表节点的里程碑与作为图表节点的任务

In PERT diagrams, each node represents a milestone or event. They offer a snapshot of the project’s progress. Imagine charting out the first draft of a software design, then the prototype, followed by the first testing phase.
在 PERT 图中，每个节点表示一个里程碑或事件。它们提供了项目进度的快照。想象一下，绘制软件设计的初稿，然后是原型，然后是第一个测试阶段。

Here’s an example PERT diagram.

CPM’s diagrams, in contrast, focus on tasks. Each node signifies a tangible step. For example, if you’re developing a new app, one node might represent the UI design, another the backend development, and so on. This gives a clear picture of the tasks that lead to the project’s end goal.
相比之下，CPM 的图表侧重于任务。每个节点都表示一个有形的步骤。例如，如果要开发新应用，一个节点可能表示 UI 设计，另一个节点表示后端开发，依此类推。这清楚地说明了导致项目最终目标的任务。

Here’s what your CPM diagram might look like (Harvard Business Review).

7. No Distinction For Critical Activities vs Distinguishing Critical Activities 7. 关键活动与关键活动不区分

In PERT, every event is vital, but there needs to be a distinct emphasis on which activities leading up to these events are more crucial than others. It’s more about ensuring each milestone is achieved within the expected time frame.
在 PERT 中，每个事件都至关重要，但需要明确强调导致这些事件的哪些活动比其他活动更重要。更重要的是确保每个里程碑都在预期的时间范围内实现。

CPM brings the spotlight to critical activities. Identifying the critical path distinctly marks those tasks that are pivotal for the project. Delay in these tasks? Your whole project gets delayed. It’s about knowing and focusing on the backbone of your project.
CPM 将焦点放在关键活动上。确定关键路径可以清楚地标记那些对项目至关重要的任务。延迟这些任务？您的整个项目被延迟了。这是关于了解并专注于项目的支柱。

8. No Resource Crashing vs Resource Crashing 8. 没有资源崩溃与资源崩溃

Resource crashing might sound dramatic, but in CPM, it’s about fast-tracking tasks by adding more resources. Think about those times when, facing a tight deadline, you pull in extra hands to get things done faster. That’s resource crashing.
资源崩溃可能听起来很戏剧化，但在 CPM 中，它是关于通过添加更多资源来快速跟踪任务的。想想那些时候，面对紧迫的最后期限，你会拉动额外的人手来更快地完成工作。这就是资源崩溃。

PERT? Not so much. While PERT is agile and adaptive in managing time, it doesn’t often manipulate resources to adjust timelines. Its primary focus is on re-evaluating and adjusting time frames based on the evolving nature of the project.
无礼的？没有那么多。虽然 PERT 在管理时间方面是敏捷和适应性的，但它并不经常操纵资源来调整时间线。其主要重点是根据项目不断变化的性质重新评估和调整时间框架。

When To Use PERT vs CPM 何时使用 PERT 与 CPM

Use PERTs charts when you have more flexibility when it comes to the project timeline, or when you don’t have all the details about each task or activity. Use CPM when your timeline is more rigid and you have enough information to make accurate estimates about the time each task or activity will take.
当您在项目时间表方面具有更大的灵活性时，或者当您没有有关每个任务或活动的所有详细信息时，请使用 PERT 图表。当您的时间表更加严格并且您有足够的信息来准确估计每个任务或活动将花费的时间时，请使用 CPM。

PERT charts are also typically used for more complex and large-scale projects, such as construction or engineering, especially if there are no external constraints on the deadline. CPM works better for smaller projects with tight timelines—the longer a project goes on, the more uncertainty there is about future tasks and activities, and the higher the chance of changes that will throw off your critical path.
PERT 图表通常也用于更复杂和大型的项目，例如建筑或工程，尤其是在截止日期没有外部限制的情况下。CPM 更适合时间紧迫的小型项目——项目持续的时间越长，未来任务和活动的不确定性就越大，发生改变的可能性就越大，从而偏离关键路径。

via:

• PERT Vs CPM: 8 Key Differences For Project Managers To Grasp

  By Ben Aston

  Last updated on Jan 19, 2024

  https://thedigitalprojectmanager.com/projects/pm-methodology/pert-vs-cpm/

篇外二：复杂项目规划和控制方法 PERT 和 CPM在独立实验室中的应用

Independent laboratories 独立实验室

inresearch and development in Types of laboratories 在研究和开发的实验室类型

The concept of a laboratory that maintains itself solely by selling research originated with the Mellon Institute in Pittsburgh before World War I. The difficulties that have to be faced are formidable, for a great deal of research work yields no immediate or obvious reward, and it is extremely difficult to satisfy customers that they are getting value for their money. Nevertheless, a number of such bodies, including the Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, and the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International), Menlo Park, Calif., have become large and successful. These organizations offer the services of workers of high professional standing who cover between them a wide range of disciplines. They undertake studies and investigations on any subject within their competence for fees that are negotiated with each customer; and, although they do not expect to make profits, they are required to be self-supporting.
仅靠出售研究来维持自身的实验室的概念起源于第一次世界大战前匹兹堡的梅隆研究所。必须面对的困难是巨大的，因为大量的研究工作不会产生立竿见影或明显的回报，而且要让客户满意，让他们的钱物有所值是极其困难的。尽管如此，包括俄亥俄州哥伦布市的巴特尔纪念研究所和加利福尼亚州门洛帕克市的斯坦福研究所（现为 SRI 国际研究所）在内的一些此类机构已经变得庞大而成功。这些组织提供具有高专业地位的工人的服务，这些工人涵盖了广泛的学科。他们在其职权范围内对任何主题进行研究和调查，以收取与每个客户协商的费用；而且，尽管他们不期望盈利，但他们必须自给自足。

Another type of organization is represented by Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., which is run on strictly commercial lines, seeking to make a commercially viable profit from the resources employed. Only one or two organizations of similar type have been established in western Europe, and they have not grown to a size comparable with those in America.
另一种类型的组织以马萨诸塞州剑桥市的 Arthur D. Little， Inc. 为代表，该公司严格按照商业路线运行，寻求从所使用的资源中获得商业上可行的利润。在西欧只建立了一两个类似类型的组织，而且它们的规模还没有发展到与美国相当的规模。

Both in Europe and in the United States, there are a great number of small laboratories providing specialist analytical, spectrographic, metallurgical, and similar services to industry. Most of their clients are companies that lack adequate facilities of their own and that in the course of time either learn to stand on their own feet or go out of business. But the constant appearance of new companies and the increasing need for technical understanding in established companies results in a slow but steady increase in the number of independent specialist laboratories serving them.
在欧洲和美国，都有大量的小型实验室为工业界提供专业的分析、光谱、冶金和类似服务。他们的大多数客户都是缺乏足够设施的公司，随着时间的推移，他们要么学会自力更生，要么倒闭。但是，新公司的不断出现以及老牌公司对技术理解的需求日益增加，导致为他们服务的独立专业实验室的数量缓慢但稳定地增加。

Research associations 研究协会

A more important part of the industrial research and development effort in western Europe and in Japan is represented by research associations. Most of these organizations are concerned with a single industry. Examples are the British Glass Industry Research Association in Sheffield, the French Petroleum Institute in Paris, the Max Planck Institute for Iron Research in Düsseldorf, and the Textile Research Institute in Yokohama. These laboratories are mainly concerned with the long-term problems of the industries they serve, but they are on occasion called in to help with immediate technical difficulties beyond the powers of local staff. In European countries other than the United Kingdom, they carry out substantial work under contract to the defense departments.
在西欧和日本的工业研究与开发工作中，一个更重要的部分是研究协会。这些组织中的大多数都与单一行业有关。例如谢菲尔德的英国玻璃工业研究协会、巴黎的法国石油研究所、杜塞尔多夫的马克斯普朗克铁研究所和横滨的纺织研究所。这些实验室主要关注他们所服务的行业的长期问题，但有时也会被要求帮助解决当地工作人员能力范围之外的直接技术困难。在英国以外的欧洲国家，他们根据与国防部的合同开展大量工作。

University laboratories 大学实验室

In principle, university laboratories are completely independent and free to investigate anything that interests them. In practice, many of them are anxious to keep in touch with industry and to focus their research effort on problems with practical applications. Similarly, industrial scientists wish to maintain contact with advanced academic research. The result is a constant interchange between universities and industry; industrialists suggest problems for university research and provide funds to support it, and university staffs act as consultants and advisers to industry. In addition, government may play a direct role by funding university research in a wide variety of specialities and research areas.
原则上，大学实验室是完全独立的，可以自由地研究他们感兴趣的任何事情。在实践中，他们中的许多人都急于与工业界保持联系，并将研究工作重点放在实际应用问题上。同样，工业科学家希望与先进的学术研究保持联系。其结果是大学和工业界之间的不断交流；实业家为大学研究提出问题并提供资金支持，大学工作人员充当工业界的顾问和顾问。此外，政府可以通过资助大学在各种专业和研究领域的研究来发挥直接作用。

The role of government 政府的作用

World War I brought home to every government involved the importance of having its armed forces supported by an industry using the most advanced scientific techniques. Since then it has been generally accepted that it is frequently desirable to encourage research and development for reasons of economic growth as well as national security. This has resulted in massive support from public funds for many sorts of laboratories.
第一次世界大战使每个政府都认识到，使用最先进的科学技术，让其武装部队得到工业支持的重要性。从那时起，人们普遍认为，出于经济增长和国家安全的原因，鼓励研究和开发往往是可取的。这导致了公共资金对许多实验室的大量支持。

Through World War II this support was limited to research and development of direct military significance, but in more recent years the types of equipment used by the armed forces have become so extensive and so complicated that it is no longer practicable to distinguish between the requirements of an efficient armament industry and those of an efficient civilian industry. Advanced communication systems, aircraft engines, computers, and nuclear power generators have been just as important to one as to the other. This fact has led governments to become the greatest single sponsors of industrial research.
在第二次世界大战期间，这种支持仅限于具有直接军事意义的研究和开发，但近年来，武装部队使用的装备类型变得如此广泛和复杂，以至于不再可行地区分高效军备工业和高效民用工业的要求。先进的通信系统、飞机发动机、计算机和核发电机对一个国家和另一个国家同样重要。这一事实使政府成为工业研究的最大单一赞助商。

During the 1960s it became clear that the “spin-off,” or civilian and commercial application of work done under government contracts for defense or space research and development, was giving the industries who participated a crucial advantage over their competitors, particularly over those in countries in which comparable assistance was not available. The dominance of U.S. firms in computer development and in microelectronics was generally attributed to this cause, and the outstanding success of the British aeroengine industry could hardly have been achieved without it. There were obvious examples, such as communication satellites, which derived from work on military rocket propulsion, and more subtle ones, such as the highly reliable electronic components, developed to make communication with and control of space vehicles more reliable, that made it possible to produce television sets with far longer life between failures. The reaction of most industrial countries was to increase government support of private research. In the United Kingdom the Ministry of Technology took responsibility for allocating funds to private industry for research projects with no direct military application. The usual practice has been to contribute 50 percent of the cost of the work, the private company providing the balance.
在 1960 年代，很明显，“分拆”，即根据政府国防或空间研究与开发合同完成的工作的民用和商业应用，使参与的行业比竞争对手具有至关重要的优势，特别是与那些没有类似援助的国家的行业相比。美国公司在计算机开发和微电子领域的主导地位通常归因于这一原因，没有它，英国航空发动机工业的杰出成功几乎不可能实现。有一些明显的例子，例如通信卫星，它源自军用火箭推进的工作，以及更微妙的例子，例如高度可靠的电子元件，其开发是为了使与航天器的通信和控制更加可靠，这使得生产电视机成为可能，在故障之间具有更长的寿命。大多数工业化国家的反应是增加政府对私人研究的支持。在联合王国，技术部负责向私营企业分配资金，用于没有直接军事应用的研究项目。通常的做法是承担工作成本的 50%，由私营公司提供余额。

In the United States and in most western European countries, research contracts placed by government departments originate in the decision of a scientifically or technically oriented executive of the department that certain work should be done. This leads to the preparation of a specification of the work, which is then offered to industry, to private research institutes, and to universities for competitive bidding.
在美国和大多数西欧国家，政府部门签订的研究合同源于该部门以科学或技术为导向的高管决定应该完成某些工作。这导致了工作规范的准备，然后提供给工业界、私人研究机构和大学进行竞争性招标。

The terms of contract have varied widely. It is common to offer contracts on a cost-plus basis. The contractor keeps records of the hours worked by the staff and the materials used; these are checked by government auditors and paid for at a negotiated rate, together with a fixed percentage as profit. Criticisms of this system led to fixed-price contracts, but these have the drawback that it is often so difficult to define the end point of a research contract that the contractor can treat a fixed-price agreement as if it were cost-plus. Another problem is that, when the end point can be exactly defined but there are genuine uncertainties in the program, the most attractive bid may come from a contractor who, through ignorance, takes too light a view of the difficulties. Yet another formula that has been tried is to offer contracts on a cost-plus-fixed-profit (rather than cost-plus-percentage) basis.
合同条款差异很大。通常以成本加成的方式提供合同。承包商记录工作人员的工作时间和使用的材料；这些由政府审计员检查，并按协商的费率支付，并按固定百分比作为利润。对这种制度的批评导致了固定价格合同，但这些合同的缺点是，通常很难确定研究合同的终点，以至于承包商可以将固定价格协议视为成本加成协议。另一个问题是，当终点可以准确定义，但计划中确实存在不确定性时，最具吸引力的投标可能来自承包商，他们由于无知而对困难的看法过于轻视。另一个已经尝试过的公式是以成本加固定利润（而不是成本加百分比）为基础提供合同。

In all these cases the main concern of the agency that sponsors the contract is to get the work done as efficiently as possible. With the many uncertainties of research and development, true economy is more likely to lie in high-quality work than in low pricing. Consequently, in every country in which the government is a substantial supporter of private research and development, the departments concerned have set up elaborate systems of monitoring work and of keeping in touch with the performance and capabilities of the companies willing to undertake it. In negotiating contracts, the sponsors attempt to place them where they will be handled most successfully. At the same time, they are concerned to keep together teams that are likely to do good work for them in the future. Within this framework the struggle of the customer to negotiate the best price for a project and that of the contractor to get a good return for the commitment of valuable resources follow normal commercial practice.
在所有这些情况下，赞助合同的机构的主要关注点是尽可能有效地完成工作。由于研发存在许多不确定性，真正的经济更可能在于高质量的工作，而不是低定价。因此，在政府大力支持私人研究与开发的每一个国家，有关部门都建立了详细的监测工作制度，并与愿意从事研究和开发的公司的业绩和能力保持联系。在谈判合同时，赞助商试图将合同放在最成功的地方。同时，他们关心的是将来可能为他们做好工作的团队团结在一起。在此框架内，客户为项目谈判最佳价格而进行的斗争，以及承包商为获得宝贵资源承诺的良好回报而进行的斗争遵循正常的商业惯例。

Patent rights are often a complex issue when research is carried out by private industry but paid for, at least partially, by government. In some cases the rights are the exclusive property of the government, and in others they belong to the contractor. A common compromise is for the government to retain all rights when anyone uses the patents to supply a government department but for the contractor to retain them when another party is involved. Thus, the government can place production orders with any contractor that it chooses, and the company that carried out the development is obliged to release information to him. If, however, the new contractor wishes to sell in the open market, he is obliged to negotiate a license and pay a royalty to the original development laboratories.
当研究由私营企业进行，但至少部分由政府支付时，专利权往往是一个复杂的问题。在某些情况下，这些权利是政府的专有财产，而在其他情况下，它们属于承包商。一个常见的折衷方案是，当任何人使用专利向政府部门提供专利时，政府保留所有权利，但当涉及另一方时，承包商保留这些权利。因此，政府可以向它选择的任何承包商下达生产订单，而进行开发的公司有义务向他发布信息。但是，如果新承包商希望在公开市场上出售，他有义务就许可证进行谈判，并向原始开发实验室支付特许权使用费。

The management of research and development activities 研究与开发活动的管理

Most research and development projects are examples of a project, or one-shot, production system. Here, as opposed to the ongoing activity found in batch or continuous systems, resources are brought together for a period of time, focused on a particular task, such as the development of a new product, and then disbanded and reassigned. The management of such projects requires a special type of organization to administer project resources in an effective manner and maintain clear accountability for the progress of the project. This organization also must avoid the inherent conflict of authority between project managers and managers in the marketing, production, and other departments and coordinate members of R and D teams who are assigned to more than one project and must divide their time among conflicting demands. The management of the whole process is a key to R and D and commercial success.
大多数研发项目都是项目或一次性生产系统的例子。在这里，与批处理或连续系统中的持续活动相反，资源在一段时间内汇集在一起，专注于特定任务，例如新产品的开发，然后解散和重新分配。此类项目的管理需要一种特殊类型的组织，以有效的方式管理项目资源，并对项目的进展保持明确的问责制。该组织还必须避免项目经理与营销、生产和其他部门的经理之间固有的权力冲突，并协调被分配到多个项目的研发团队成员，并且必须在相互冲突的需求之间分配时间。全过程的管理是研发和商业成功的关键。

In industries where continuous innovation and R and D are critical, such as electronics, drugs, robotics, and aerospace, the R and D department usually operates on a corporate level comparable to production, finance, and marketing. A relatively small management group usually sets priorities and budgets and supervises R and D activities. Most research and development personnel are assigned to project activity and report to individual project managers who have considerable autonomy and authority over the people and resources required to complete the project.
在电子、制药、机器人和航空航天等持续创新和研发至关重要的行业中，研发部门通常在公司层面上运作，与生产、财务和营销相当。一个相对较小的管理小组通常设定优先事项和预算，并监督研发活动。大多数研发人员被分配到项目活动中，并向个别项目经理报告，这些经理对完成项目所需的人员和资源有相当大的自主权和权力。

The basic purpose of the R and D laboratories of private industry is to provide new products for manufacture and new or improved processes for producing them. One difficulty facing those who plan these projects is the relationship between development costs and predicted sales. In the early stages of development, project expenditures are typically low. They increase to a maximum and decline slowly, disappearing as early production difficulties are overcome and the product settles into a market niche.
私营企业研发实验室的基本目的是提供用于制造的新产品以及新的或改进的生产工艺。规划这些项目的人面临的一个困难是开发成本与预期销售额之间的关系。在开发的早期阶段，项目支出通常很低。它们增加到最大值并缓慢下降，随着早期生产困难的克服和产品进入市场利基而消失。

Similarly, production rises slowly at first, then more rapidly, and finally reaches a plateau. After a time, production starts to fall, sales declining gradually as the product becomes obsolete or abruptly as it is replaced by a new one.
同样，产量起初缓慢上升，然后更快，最后达到一个平台。一段时间后，产量开始下降，随着产品过时或突然被新产品取代，销售额逐渐下降。

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aerospace industry: Research

At any particular time, a company may have a number of products at different stages of the cycle. Project managers must ensure that the total development effort required is neither greater nor significantly less than available human and financial resources. Production managers must be satisfied that the eventual demands upon their capacity and resources will be sufficient to keep them fully loaded but not overloaded.
在任何特定时间，一家公司都可能在周期的不同阶段拥有许多产品。项目经理必须确保所需的开发工作总额既不多于现有的人力和财力资源，也不明显少于现有的人力和财力资源。生产经理必须确信，对其产能和资源的最终需求将足以使他们保持满负荷但不会超负荷。

To maintain such a balanced condition, a steady flow of new R and D proposals is required. Each must be studied by technical, commercial, financial, and manufacturing experts. Planning within an R and D organization, then, consists of selecting for development new products and processes that promise to employ the resources available in the most profitable manner. R and D managers have a key part to play in proposing projects as well as in carrying them out.
为了保持这种平衡状态，需要源源不断的新研发建议。每个都必须由技术、商业、财务和制造专家进行研究。因此，研发组织内部的规划包括选择用于开发的新产品和流程，这些产品和流程有望以最有利可图的方式利用现有资源。研发经理在提出项目和执行项目方面发挥着关键作用。

At each stage of the research and development process, there are numerous technical, financial, and managerial issues that have to be resolved and coordinated with many groups. For example, during the late 1970s and early 1980s several computer and electronics companies in the United States and Europe established major research programs aimed at developing bubble memory devices for large computers. As bubble memories were proved to be technically feasible (i.e., work reliably under normal operating conditions), attention shifted to developing processes to manufacture the memory units at competitive costs. This part of the job proved the most difficult, and by the mid-1980s bubble memories had captured only a minuscule share of the total market for memory devices.
在研发过程的每个阶段，都有许多技术、财务和管理问题需要解决，并与许多团队进行协调。例如，在 1970 年代末和 1980 年代初，美国和欧洲的几家计算机和电子公司建立了旨在开发大型计算机气泡存储设备的主要研究计划。由于气泡存储器被证明在技术上是可行的（即在正常操作条件下可靠地工作），人们的注意力转移到开发工艺上，以具有竞争力的成本制造存储器单元。这部分工作被证明是最困难的，到 1980 年代中期，泡沫存储器只占据了存储设备整个市场的一小部分。

The difficulties in developing the design and production specifications needed to produce low-cost bubble memory units severely tested the mettle of the R and D organizations in several companies in the United States, Japan, and Europe. Each company had to balance the expense of continued R and D investment against the consequences of withdrawing from bubble memory research. Making a decision like this requires a keen sense of the market, a knowledge of the technical issues at hand, and, most importantly, an understanding of the company’s priorities and alternatives for R and D funds.
在制定生产低成本气泡存储单元所需的设计和生产规范方面的困难严重考验了美国、日本和欧洲几家公司的研发组织的勇气。每家公司都必须在持续的研发投资费用与退出泡沫记忆研究的后果之间取得平衡。做出这样的决定需要对市场有敏锐的洞察力，对手头的技术问题有了解，最重要的是，要了解公司的研发资金的优先事项和替代方案。

Project management and planning techniques 项目管理和规划技术

Value engineering and cost-benefit analysis 价值工程和成本效益分析

In the areas in which technology advances fastest, new products and new materials are required in a constant flow, but there are many industries in which the rate of change is gentle. Although ships, automobiles, telephones, and television receivers have changed over the last quarter of a century, the changes have not been spectacular. Nevertheless, a manufacturer who used methods even 10 years old could not survive in these businesses. The task of R and D laboratories working in these areas is to keep every facet of the production process under review and to maintain a steady stream of improvements. Although each in itself may be trivial, the total effect is many times as large as the margin between success and failure in a competitive situation.
在技术进步最快的领域，新产品和新材料是源源不断的，但许多行业的变化速度是温和的。尽管在过去的四分之一个世纪里，船舶、汽车、电话和电视接收器发生了变化，但这些变化并不惊人。然而，使用甚至 10 年历史的方法的制造商无法在这些业务中生存。在这些领域工作的研发实验室的任务是不断审查生产过程的各个方面，并保持稳定的改进。尽管每个因素本身可能都是微不足道的，但总影响是竞争环境中成功与失败之间的差距的很多倍。

These efforts to improve existing products and processes have been formalized under the titles of value engineering and cost-benefit analysis.
这些改进现有产品和流程的努力已在价值工程和成本效益分析的标题下正式化。

In value engineering every complete product and every component have their primary function described by an action verb and a noun. For example, an automobile’s dynamo, or generator, generates electricity. The engineer considers all other possible methods of generation, calculates a cost for each, and compares the lowest figure with that for the existing dynamo. If the ratio is reasonably close to unity, the dynamo can be accepted as an efficient component. If not, the engineer examines the alternatives in more detail. The same treatment is applied in turn to each of the parts out of which the chosen component is built, until it is clear that the best possible value is being obtained.
在价值工程中，每个完整的产品和每个组件都有其主要功能，由动作动词和名词描述。例如，汽车的发电机或发电机发电。工程师考虑所有其他可能的发电方法，计算每种方法的成本，并将最低数字与现有发电机的成本进行比较。如果比率合理地接近单位，则发电机可以被接受为有效组件。如果没有，工程师会更详细地检查备选方案。相同的处理依次应用于构建所选组件的每个零件，直到明确获得最佳价值为止。

Cost-benefit analysis approaches the same fundamental problem from a different angle. It takes each part of a product or process and completely defines its function and the basis for measuring its benefits or effectiveness. Then the costs of obtaining each part are reviewed, taking full account of purchased material, labour, investment cost, downtime, and other factors. This focuses attention upon the most expensive items and makes it possible to apply the principal effort in seeking economies at the points of maximum reward. In the effort to improve a product or process, care must be taken to evaluate alternatives on the same “cost” and “benefit” bases so that existing approaches do not enjoy a special advantage just because they are familiar.
成本效益分析从不同的角度处理相同的基本问题。它采用产品或过程的每个部分，并完全定义其功能以及衡量其收益或有效性的基础。然后，在充分考虑采购材料、劳动力、投资成本、停机时间和其他因素的情况下，审查获得每个零件的成本。这将注意力集中在最昂贵的物品上，并有可能将主要精力用于寻求最大回报的经济。在努力改进产品或工艺时，必须注意在相同的 “成本” 和 “效益” 基础上评估替代方案，以便现有方法不会仅仅因为熟悉而享有特殊优势。

These two processes are unending. Every new material, new manufacturing technique, or new way of carrying out an operation gives the engineer a chance to improve his product, and it is from these continuing improvements that the high degree of economy and reliability of modern equipment derives.
这两个过程是永无止境的。每一种新材料、新的制造技术或新的操作方式都为工程师提供了改进其产品的机会，而现代设备的高度经济性和可靠性正是从这些持续改进中获得的。

Thomas S. McLeodWilliam K. Holstein

PERT and CPM PERT 和 CPM

Project managers frequently face the task of controlling projects that contain unknown and unpredictable factors. When the projects are not complex, bar charts can be used to plan and control project activities. These charts divide the project into discrete activities or tasks and analyze each task individually to indicate weekly manpower requirements. As the work goes forward, progress is charted and estimates are made on the effects of any delays or difficulties encountered during the completion of the project.
项目经理经常面临控制包含未知和不可预测因素的项目的任务。当项目不复杂时，可以使用条形图来计划和控制项目活动。这些图表将项目划分为离散的活动或任务，并单独分析每个任务以指示每周的人力需求。随着工作的推进，将绘制进度图，并对项目完成过程中遇到的任何延误或困难的影响进行估计。

In the mid-1950s more sophisticated methods of project planning and control were developed. Two systems based on a network portrayal of the activities that make up the project emerged at about the same time. PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) was first used in the development of submarines capable of firing Polaris missiles. CPM (the Critical Path Method) was used to manage the annual maintenance work in an oil and chemical refinery. Many variations and extensions of the two original techniques are now in use, and they have proved particularly valuable for projects requiring the coordinated work of hundreds of separate contractors. The use of project planning and control techniques based on PERT or CPM are now common in all types of civil engineering and construction work, as well as for large developmental projects such as the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, space vehicles, and large mainframe computer systems.
在 1950 年代中期，开发了更复杂的项目规划和控制方法。大约在同一时间出现了两个基于构成该项目的活动的网络描述的系统。PERT（程序评估和审查技术）首先用于开发能够发射北极星导弹的潜艇。CPM（关键路径法）用于管理石油和化学炼油厂的年度维护工作。这两种原始技术的许多变体和扩展现在都在使用中，事实证明，它们对于需要数百个独立承包商协调工作的项目特别有价值。基于 PERT 或 CPM 的项目规划和控制技术的使用现在在所有类型的土木工程和建筑工作以及大型开发项目（如飞机、导弹、航天器和大型计算机系统的制造）中都很普遍。

network diagram for the Critical Path Method problem

A simple example of a network, or “arrow diagram,” used in developing an electronic component for a complex system, is shown in thefigure. Each circle on the diagram represents a task or well-defined activity that is part of the project. The number in each circle represents the expected time required to complete the task.
图中显示了用于开发复杂系统电子元件的网络或 “箭头图” 的简单示例。关系图上的每个圆圈都表示项目中的任务或定义明确的活动。每个圆圈中的数字表示完成任务所需的预期时间。

Task A requires two weeks to complete and might, for example, represent the development of general specifications for an electronic unit in question. Tasks B and E might represent two related parts of the design of the unit’s power supply, C and F the design of the main functional circuits, and D and G the design of the control circuitry. Arrows indicate the precedence of relationships and depict which tasks must be completed before subsequent tasks can begin. In this example, tasks B, C, and D cannot be started until A has been completed (that is, no one can design specific component items before the general specifications are agreed upon).
任务 A 需要两周时间才能完成，例如，可能代表有关电子单元的通用规范的制定。任务 B 和 E 可能代表单元电源设计的两个相关部分，C 和 F 代表主要功能电路的设计，D 和 G 代表控制电路的设计。箭头指示关系的优先级，并描述在后续任务开始之前必须完成哪些任务。在此示例中，任务 B、C 和 D 在完成 A 之前无法启动（也就是说，在就通用规格达成一致之前，没有人可以设计特定的组件项目）。

Task H requires two weeks to complete but cannot be started until the designs of the power supply and the functional and control circuits have been completed. This task might represent the design of the unit’s case or cover, and the case cannot be made final until all of the component designs are completed.
任务 H 需要两周时间才能完成，但在电源、功能和控制电路的设计完成之前不能启动。此任务可能代表单元外壳或盖板的设计，在所有组件设计完成之前，外壳无法最终确定。

The arrow diagram is an invaluable planning aid for determining how long a project will take to complete. Adding all of the task times together in the example indicates that there are 24 weeks of work to be completed. Note, however, that several tasks can be done simultaneously. For example, once task A has been completed, B, C, and D can be started and worked on concurrently. Thus, the earliest completion date can be determined by looking at all possible “paths” through the network and choosing the longest one, or the one with tasks requiring the most total time. In this example the longest, or “critical,” path is A–C–F–H, requiring a total time of 11 weeks.
箭头图是确定项目完成所需时间的宝贵规划辅助工具。将示例中的所有任务时间相加表示有 24 周的工作需要完成。但请注意，可以同时执行多个任务。例如，任务 A 完成后，可以同时启动和处理 B、C 和 D。因此，可以通过查看网络中所有可能的 “路径” 并选择最长的路径或任务需要最多总时间的路径来确定最早的完成日期。在此示例中，最长的或 “关键” 路径是 A-C-F-H，总共需要 11 周的时间。

The arrow diagram yields additional information to the project planner. The earliest possible time that task H can be started is nine weeks after the start of the project (that is, after tasks A, C, and F have been completed). When task A is completed at the end of week 2, tasks B and E do not have to be started immediately in order to complete the project in the minimum possible time; B and E each have three weeks of “slack.” The diagram shows that if activity B is started three weeks later than its earliest possible start time (at week 5), it would be completed at the end of week 5; E would then start at the beginning of week 6 and be completed in time for H to begin at its earliest time, the beginning of week 10.
箭头图为项目规划器提供其他信息。可以启动任务 H 的最早时间是项目开始后 9 周（即任务 A、C 和 F 完成后）。当任务 A 在第 2 周结束时完成时，不必立即启动任务 B 和 E 即可在尽可能短的时间内完成项目；B 和 E 各有三周的 “松弛期”。该图显示，如果活动 B 比其最早的开始时间（第 5 周）晚三周开始，则将在第 5 周结束时完成；然后，E 将在第 6 周开始时开始，并及时完成，以便 H 在最早的时间（第 10 周开始时）开始。

The notion of slack in a project network is a powerful concept that allows planners to schedule scarce resources efficiently and manage people and equipment so that critical activities are kept on schedule and slack activities are delayed without placing the project in jeopardy.
项目网络中的松弛概念是一个强大的概念，它允许规划人员有效地安排稀缺资源并管理人员和设备，以便关键活动按计划进行，松弛活动被延迟，而不会使项目处于危险之中。

This simple example is based on CPM logic; it uses single-point task time estimates and assumes that the completion time for the project is the simple sum of the task times along the critical path. PERT logic assumes probabilistic estimates for each task time, with pessimistic, realistic, and optimistic estimates for the completion times of each task.
这个简单的示例基于 CPM 逻辑；它使用单点任务时间估计，并假定项目的完成时间是沿关键路径的任务时间的简单总和。PERT 逻辑假设每个任务时间的概率估计，以及每个任务的完成时间的悲观、现实和乐观估计。

In actual projects the relationships among the required tasks are often complex, and the arrow diagram for the project might cover the entire wall of an office. Even though it is a time-consuming job to work out arrow diagrams, precedence relationships, task time estimates, and so on for large projects, CPM or PERT is an invaluable aid to planning and control. The proliferation of computer programs that handle critical path and slack time calculations and the development of computer systems capable of handling cost estimates, budget control, resource allocation, and time scheduling promise to make CPM and PERT even more valuable than in the past.
在实际项目中，所需任务之间的关系通常很复杂，项目的箭头图可能覆盖办公室的整个墙壁。尽管为大型项目制定箭头图、优先级关系、任务时间估计等是一项耗时的工作，但 CPM 或 PERT 对规划和控制提供了宝贵的帮助。处理关键路径和松弛时间计算的计算机程序的激增，以及能够处理成本估算、预算控制、资源分配和时间调度的计算机系统的发展，有望使 CPM 和 PERT 比过去更有价值。

William K. Holstein

via:

• Research and development - PERT, CPM, Planning | Britannica

  Also known as: R and D, R&D
  Written by William K. Holstein, Thomas S. McLeod
  All Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaLast
  Updated: Jun 13, 2024

  https://www.britannica.com/topic/research-and-development/PERT-and-CPM